Content Learning Approach

For this section you need to be able to: a Describe the main features of classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR), extinction and spontaneous recovery. b Describe the main features of operant conditioning, including positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, primary and secondary reinforcement. c For either classical or operant conditioning, describe and evaluate one treatment/therapy. Suitable examples: aversion therapy, systematic desensitisation, token economy programmes. d Describe the main features of social learning theory, including observation, imitation, modelling, vicarious reinforcement. e Describe how learning theory can be used to explain gender development/behaviour with particular reference to modelling, reinforcement and behaviour shaping. f Evaluate learning theory as an explanation of gender behaviour including comparison with explanations from the Biological and Psychodynamic Approaches.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov found that dogs quickly learned to associate things in the environment together, like food and the noises that occur when food is being prepared.  If one of the things is an unconditioned stimulus and it is paired frequently enough with the other neutral stimulus then the neutral stimulus on its own will cause the same response as the unconditioned stimulus.  This is the basic procedure used by Pavlov.

In some of Pavlov’s famous experiments with dogs he paired a neutral stimulus – a buzzer (called the conditioned stimulus) with food (this is called the unconditioned stimulus). The buzzer was played at the same time as the food was presented. Eventually presentation of the buzzer on its own came to produce the same response (salivation) that food had elicited. The salivation to the sound of the buzzer was called the conditioned response whereas the salivation to food was called the unconditioned response.

Some other terms associated with classical  conditioning

Extinction – If the CS is no longer associated with the presentation of the
UCS then the CR no longer occurs.

Spontaneous Recovery – This occurs after extinction and is a brief return of the CS, however this does appear in a weakened form but does mean that reconditioning is much easier.

Generalisation – This is when the learner shows the CR to similar stimuli to the CS.

Discrimination – When the learner only shows the CR to one particular stimulus, this happens when the learner is exposed to a number of similar stimuli but only one is reliably paired with the presentation of the UCS.

Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning doesn’t provide a full explanation of learning. It only explains how existing behaviours are shown in new situations. It also doesn’t explain how we learn through the consequence of our actions. The ‘Law of Effect’ was first proposed by Thorndike in 1911, which showed that animals learn through trial and error.  This led to B F Skinner developing the principles of operant conditioning through his experiments involving animals. Skinner believed that animals and humans learn in the same way and went on to apply his findings to explain aspects of human behaviour.

Operant conditioning states that we learn through the consequence of actions (or operations we perform on the environment).  Operations that have positive consequences will be repeated i.e. learned, operations that have unpleasant consequences will not be repeated.  By controlling the consequences of behaviour it is possible to control what is learned and therefore control future behaviour.

Operant conditioning proposes that you only learn when the behaviour you exhibit has consequences, behaviour that is reinforced (positive consequence) is strengthened and so learning takes place.  Behaviour that has an unpleasant outcome (punishment) will not be repeated and so learning takes place.  Skinner believed that punishment was a less effective learning technique than reinforcement.

These are the key terms you need to know and apply;

Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when a required behaviour is rewarded with something pleasant as a result . This will strengthen behaviour. E.g. This is shown in Skinner’s experiments where he rewarded the animal for pressing the lever with a food pellet.
Primary reinforcers include things such as food and water, anything that fulfils a basic need. However stimuli which are associated with primary reinforcers, such as money, can
become reinforcers in their own right– these are known as secondary reinforcers.
Negative reinforcement also strengthens behaviour but this time involves something unpleasant being given until the
required behaviour is shown. For instance Skinner would run a small electrical current along the bottom of the Skinner box, until the lever was pressed, which would turn the shock off

Punishment
This is an unpleasant consequence which is given after behaviour we wish to stop. Within Skinner’s experiments he used punishment to stop the animal pressing the lever, by sending an electrical current along the bottom of the box whenever they pressed the lever making the animal less likely to press the lever again.

Skinner’ s basic method involved placing an animal (rats or pigeons most
frequently) in a specially designed box and training them to show specific behaviours or operations.  He conducted many variations within his research and concluded that behaviour is more likely to be repeated (strengthened) by reinforcement, both positive and negative, and less likely to be repeated (weakened) if the behaviour is punished.

Skinner invented a piece of apparatus known as a ‘Skinner box’, which he used to study principles of animal learning. Typically, hungry pigeons or rats were placed into the box where they had to press a lever or peck a disc in order to obtain food.  It is natural for animals, such as rats or pigeons, to explore new environments, therefore when placed into the skinner box they moved around it. Skinner demonstrated it is possible to shape an animal’s behaviour by rewarding behaviours close to the required behaviour. For instance he would reward a rat whenever it would go near the lever by giving it food pellet. Eventually the rat would accidentally press the lever which would release a food pellet. The rat soon learns that food is released when the lever is pressed and continues to press it

Application of the Learning Approach to Treatments/ Therapies

Here we will be looking at relating theory from the learning approach to the deliberate alteration of human behaviour. Learning theory can be used in clinical settings in order to change behaviour which is deemed to be abnormal. Any therapy which is based upon the principles of classical conditioning is referred to as behaviour therapy. We are going to be looking at one form of behavioural therapy known as aversion therapy.

Aversion therapy is aimed at changing/removing undesirable behaviours by creating an association between the undesirable behaviour and a stimulus designed to bring about an unpleasant response.

The therapy is designed to rid patients of a stimulus they have been conditioned to like. For instance, an alcoholic might like alcohol as it is associated with happy times, it is therefore a CS. The conditioned stimulus of alcohol is then paired with a UCS which brings about a naturally unpleasant response like nausea. Eventually, the person should associate the CS with the unpleasant response and stop the behaviour.

Alcoholism is one behaviour which can be overcome using this method. In this case there needs to be an aversive response to the alcohol rather than a pleasurable one. Alcohol is often paired with an emetic drug (which induces vomiting) so that the patient associates alcohol with vomiting and it becomes a conditioned response.

Evaluation of aversion therapy

Gender Development

A social learning theory explanation for sex differences suggests children develop behaviours consistent with the gender roles they observe within their parents, peers and social groups.

It assumes that gender develops over time and with increased experience of the environment, i.e. through nurture.

According to this theory gender development occurs through the process of observation, modelling, imitation and reinforcement.

Children observe their parents as models and, once they are old enough to know what sex they are, imitate the behaviour of people of the same gender. Children are also encouraged to take part in stereotypical behaviour for their gender and rewarded for doing so, through praise and attention.

Evaluation of learning theory explanation of gender development.